Community Bible Study -- Acts
Text of Presentation, Lesson 24
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Community Bible Study -- Acts Text of Presentation, Lesson 24 Click Here to see Lesson 24 Photos . . . Click Here to return to Acts Home Page |
Acts: The Rest of the Story
Last week the book of Acts came to an end. Paul was in Rome welcoming visitors “for two years . . . in his own rented house. . . . Boldly and without hindrance he preached the kingdom of God and taught about the Lord Jesus Christ” (Acts 28:30-31) . . . while he waited to be called for trial by Caesar Nero.
What is the outcome of Paul’s trial? . . . and what finally happens to Paul? No written records have been found; everything comes from Christian tradition. We are pretty sure Paul was released . . . probably around 62 AD and for the reasons discussed already: Nero didn’t want to arbitrate a Jewish religious dispute – especially if the plaintiffs didn’t even show up!
According to tradition, Paul embarks on another mission trip after his release . . . to Spain and/or France and/or Greece; scholars believe he went to Philippi and wrote his letter to Titus and his 1st letter to Timothy while visiting there; his letter to Titus suggests he went to Crete (Ti 1:5); and his 2nd letter to Timothy suggests his trip included Troas (2 Tim 4:13). But no one wrote about the journeys.
At about the same time Paul is released, Governor Festus dies, and Nero names Lucceius Albinus as governor of Judea and Samaria. The next year, 63 AD, the rebuilding of the Jewish temple – begun by Herod the Great almost 80 years earlier – is finally completed. The work was important to the economy of Judea; and with the job finished, everyone in the building trades becomes unemployed or underemployed. Tax revenues plummet, and Governor Albinus uses extortion to bring them back up. Jewish guerillas rise up and attack the Romans . . . who brutally suppress the rebels. After about a year of this, in 64 AD, Nero names a new governor: Gessius Florus.
On July 19, 64 AD, a massive fire breaks out in Rome. Flames rage for six days before coming under control; then reignite and burn for another three days. When the smoke clears, ten of Rome's fourteen districts are in ruins. Nero is conveniently out of town when the fire ignites, and the Roman historian Tacitus claims Nero started the fire to clear the way for a new building program the Roman Senate opposed! But Nero blames the fire on Christians. It’s not clear why Christians are the scapegoat . . . but Nero mercilessly crucifies them, feeds them to hungry lions during gladiator matches, and uses them as human torches to light his garden parties.
According to Christian tradition, Peter is in Rome at the time, and becomes the first prominent victim of Nero’s persecution. There is no written record of how or when Peter came to Rome; he is not mentioned in Acts 28, so he would have had to arrive after Paul left in 62 AD. Nevertheless, Clement, an early pope, claims Peter was the 1st bishop of Rome (the title held by the Pope). As a parenthetic comment, the reason the Roman Catholic Church claims the pope is supreme over the early church Bishops of Alexandria, Antioch, and Constantinople, is that Peter was the first Bishop of Rome.
The story of what happens to Peter is called the “Quo Vadis” legend: Peter is in Rome when the city burns, and flees as soon as he learns Nero has blamed Christians and plans to persecute them. He goes south on the Appian Way . . . but in the middle of a very dark night – when Peter is scarcely out of the city – he encounters Jesus, walking toward Rome. To say Peter is “surprised” is an understatement . . . but when he recovers his composure, he says, in Latin: “Domine, quo vadis?” . . . “Lord, where are you going?” Peter surely didn’t really speak to Jesus in Latin, he would have used Aramaic . . . nevertheless, Jesus responds: “I go to Rome, to be crucified again.” Peter may have been slow to understand many of Jesus’ subtle remarks during his lifetime . . . but he doesn’t miss this rebuke! Peter turns around and returns to Rome. According to the legend, Jesus’ footprints are left in a stone at the spot where he meets Peter; these footprints are preserved to this day in the small Quo Vadis Chapel along the Appian Way.
Peter then provides a personal “Profile in Courage”: submitting to capture in Rome as a proud follower of Jesus. Perhaps stung by Jesus’ rebuke on the Appian Way, he insists he is not worthy to die like Jesus, and asks to be crucified upside down. The Romans agree, and according to tradition, Peter is crucified at the spot where the Vatican stands today.
James, the brother of Jesus and leader of the church in Jerusalem, is believed to be another early victim of Nero’s persecution. The details come from the writings of Eusebius more than 200 years later (but quoting from a source 100 years earlier whose writings have disappeared). The story is that the Jewish leaders in the Sanhedrin turned their attention to James when Paul slipped out of their grasp. Since the Jerusalem church is “zealous for the law” (Acts 21:20), it’s not possible to accuse James of violating Jewish law (as was done with Paul) . . . but once Nero’s persecution of Christians begins, it becomes a crime merely to be a Christian. James is easily captured in the temple – where he often prays – and he is brought before the Sanhedrin and a crowd of onlookers. Pharisees and experts in Jewish law question him and call upon him to deny Jesus; but James not only refuses, he witnesses for Jesus, and converts some in the crowd. Nevertheless, he is found guilty of blasphemy and sentenced to death. As was the case with Stephen, his sentence is to be carried out immediately – but not in the holy temple. So James is thrown out over a parapet, stoned on the ground below, and clubbed to death. His last words echo some of the last words of Jesus: “Forgive them; they do not know what they are doing.” Eusibius says James was buried where he fell . . . but it’s more likely Jewish burial customs were followed, and his bones may have ended up in an ossuary. Hence the ossuary inscribed “James, brother of Jesus” is credible – even though most scholars believe it is a forgery.
Another tradition is that the Christians of Jerusalem fled to Pella, a city of the Decapolis, to escape James’ fate. That tradition is disputed . . . and seems unlikely because Acts shows so clearly that the Jerusalem church is dominated by Pharisee-Christians who continue to follow Jewish traditions and expect others to do the same. Life in an evil Greek city like Pella would be a fate worse than death to them; more likely, Christians who chose to escape dispersed themselves among Christians in Jewish cities.
Meanwhile, Governor Florus continues the persecution of Jews begun by his predecessor. Except for Festus, superlatives must be stretched to describe the Roman Governors: evil, eviler, evilest, more evilest, most evilest; and both and Florus and Albinus fit that to a “T.” Israel is a tinderbox waiting for a spark to ignite revolt. This comes in 66AD: first, Florus loots the temple; then the Gentiles of Caesarea are given elevated status over the Jews of the city. Josephus claims Florus is deliberately trying to provoke the Jews to riot, so as to undermine the efforts of a Jewish delegation sent to Rome to complain of his brutality. Nevertheless, riots break out in Caesarea . . . then Jerusalem. When these are brutally suppressed, a full scale Jewish revolt erupts in Caesarea.
A Jew named Menahem of Gamla – grandson of Judas of Gamla (who led the revolt of 6 AD) – leads a band of Jewish rebels to surprise and conquer the Roman fortress of Masada. The rebels help themselves to Roman weapons and shields, then surprise and defeat the Roman garrison in Jerusalem. They also gleefully kill Ananias (the high priest who slapped Paul and pursued his prosecution), whom they find hiding in an aqueduct!
Skirmishes occur between the Romans and the Jewish rebels, and Governor Florus is killed. Menahem and his rebels withdraw to Masada, and use it as a base for hit-and-run attacks. Roman Governor Cestius of Syria attacks Judea, but his troops are repulsed by Jewish forces at Jerusalem. This buoys the rebels . . . but wise Jews realize Rome is too powerful; they enlist King Herod Agrippa II to sue for peace. But things have gone too far, and Rome is determined to teach the mutinous Jews a lesson. Meanwhile, Jewish factions fight among themselves: wasting valuable lives and resources which will be needed to fight the Romans. It is absurd to think the Jews can defeat Rome even unified – but Jewish factional fighting continues throughout the war.
The Roman military tactic is to ensure victory by using overwhelming force . . . so Nero calls upon General Vespasian and his son Titus to lead a large army to suppress the revolt. In 67AD Roman soldiers – with the troops of King Herod Agrippa II – march on Galilee against a Jewish army led by Josephus: a reluctant warrior who knows he is going to lose. The armies clash at the city of Jotapata. After a 1˝ month siege, Josephus wants to surrender, but his fellow rebels want to commit suicide. Josephus joins in a suicide pact . . . but with luck and a silver tongue, he and one other are the last two left alive . . . and they surrender. When Josephus is brought before Vespasian, he claims to be a prophet, and prophesies he will be the next emperor . . . which ensures Josephus’ safety.
Vespasian systematically eliminates the insurgents in Galilee. At Menahem’s home of Gamla, built on a steep hillside on the Golan Heights, the battle is an incredibly bloody, with heavy casualties on both sides. 4000 Jewish defenders are killed as the Romans drive them to the citadel, overlooking a steep precipice – then 5000 remaining Jews jump over the precipice to their deaths, rather than submit to Roman captivity. Today, Gamla is an Israeli “Remember the Alamo” place, containing Israel’s oldest synagogue.
By the end of 67 AD, Vespasian has cleaned up all resistance in Galilee. In the spring of 68 AD, he pacifies the countryside: Perea east of the Jordan . . . Jericho . . . Samaria. By June 68 AD, he is ready to move on Jerusalem. Yet Jewish rebel factions continue to fight one another: a group called the Zealots occupies the temple and names a new high priest – which so enrages the other Jewish factions that civil war breaks out. Hence, rather than attack Jerusalem, Vespasian waits as the Jews destroy themselves.
Meanwhile, according to Christian tradition, Paul has avoided Nero by staying on the move (as noted earlier). Nevertheless, he is finally captured – probably in Troas (2 Tim 4:13) – and taken to Rome in chains a second time. Things are different now: the first time Paul had committed no Roman crime . . . but now merely being a Christian is a Roman crime. Paul as a Roman citizen still has special rights . . . but these are mostly the right to a fair trial and a humane execution. Scholars agree that 2 Timothy is Paul’s last letter, and it is probably written from a Roman dungeon. Paul is tried and condemned to die around 67-68 AD, and he is humanely executed: beheaded with a sword outside the city walls. St. Paul’s Outside-the-Walls cathedral is built over the traditional site of his execution. Nevertheless, Paul outlives Ananias . . . and almost outlives Nero – who commits suicide in June 68.
The Roman bureaucracy is like any other: Caesar Nero dead, and people are afraid to do anything the next emperor might criticize. Strong as Rome is – and as weak as the Jewish defenders have become fighting among themselves – Jerusalem is still a strong fortress which will be difficult to overcome. Vespasian returns to Caesarea . . . and waits for directives from the new Caesar. Jesus had warned to “flee to the mountains” at a time like this (Matt 24:16); and many residents of Jerusalem decide now is the time to leave the city. In fact, it is the last opportunity for anyone to leave safely – and the last opportunity for the defenders to prepare for a siege; but instead, the Jewish rebels return to fighting one another, and large stores of food – enough to withstand a long siege – are burned.
Back in Rome, royal succession does not go smoothly. The first new emperor is assassinated, as civil war breaks out between two other rivals for the crown. Then, in July 69 AD, Vespasian’s troops proclaim him emperor, and he leads his army to Rome to fight for the crown. In December Vespasian is victorious; and as a “thank you” to the man who prophesied this day, he frees Josephus and grants him Roman citizenship. This of course is the Josephus who wrote a secular history of the times of Jesus and the early church, which corroborates much of the New Testament
Vespasian names his son Titus to command the army to finish off Jerusalem. Titus marches on the city, and prepares for a siege as Passover approaches: April 14, 70 AD. Many Jews from outside Judea come to the temple for this mandatory Jewish feast – but Titus tightens his noose around the city as Jewish defenders use it as a base for hit-and-run attacks on the Romans. The Passover pilgrims find themselves trapped.
The gory details of Titus’ conquest of Jerusalem will not be discussed; they are in the writings of Josephus, and provide a snapshot of the horrors of ancient siege warfare. But one important point is that the earlier burning of stored food causes a severe famine: Jewish defenders kill one another for food, even as Roman troops gradually break down the city walls. Josephus says many unfortunate Jewish civilians try to leave the city – and swallow gold before escaping; the Romans discover this, and disembowel 2000 refugees every day to search for gold. Many Jewish defenders desert – and deserters are killed by both those inside and those outside the city; 500 Jews are crucified every day during the worst of the siege: so many that the Romans run out of crosses!
Titus wants to spare the Jewish temple, but the rebels use it as a fortress. He burns the gates so his troops can enter the courtyard, but sends Roman soldiers to put out the fires and save the temple. However, things get out of hand when rebels attack the firefighters, and the temple burns to the ground on August 10: Josephus claims it’s the same day the Babylonians burned Solomon’s temple 655 years earlier. The destruction is total; it is just as Jesus prophesied: “Not one stone (of the temple) will be left on another; every one will be thrown down” (Matt 24:2). Today many stones from the temple lay in the valley below temple mount . . . where they fell over 1930 years ago.
Titus systematically conquers and burns the rest of the city, leaving only three defensive towers: one of which still stands today. Josephus claims 1,100,000 perished during the siege – most of them Passover pilgrims. Survivors over 17 years old were sent to the arena as gladiators or sent to the mines of Egypt; those under 17 were sold as slaves.
With Jerusalem conquered, Menahem and his rebels in Masada are the only Jewish resistance left. The fortress seems impregnable, but the Romans are determined to eliminate all Jewish insurgents, so they build an incredibly high siege ramp – which still stands today. After four years – in 74 AD – the soldiers break through the gates . . . but find the Jewish defenders have committed suicide rather than become Roman captives. Masada is another Israeli “Remember the Alamo” site: today young Jews go there to be inducted into the Israeli army, and the Masada synagogue – Israel’s 2nd oldest – is popular for Bar Mitzvahs.
Titus returns to Rome in triumph. A massive arch – the Arch of Titus – is built to commemorate his victory; it features a relief showing Roman soldiers carrying booty from the temple, and sending Jewish survivors into slavery. So that Jews will never forget what happened, coinage for circulation in Judea is minted with the slogan “Judea Capta” – Judea Captured – and carries a relief of a Roman soldier with his foot on the head of a Jewish rebel, while a Jewish woman cries beneath a palm tree.
Someone has said Titus was “greatest religious reformer in history.” The temple is the focal point of the Jewish system of animal sacrifice system and of the celebration of Jewish religious feasts in Jerusalem. Hence by destroying the temple, Titus removes all opportunity to practice the Jewish religion as was done prior to 70 AD. By necessity, the focus of the Jewish religion shifts to the local synagogues: the “mitzvah” (good deed) replaces animal sacrifice; the Seder – ending with the words: “Next year, in Jerusalem” – is developed to celebrate Passover; and Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement, becomes personalized rather than corporate. These were the kind of reforms preached by Jesus . . . even though the Jews have never accepted Jesus as Messiah.
The Sadducees are never heard from after 70 AD; all perished in the conquest of Jerusalem. But the Pharisees – more dispersed throughout Israel and the world – live on . . . especially through a center of Jewish scholarship set up in Jamnia. Around 200 AD the oral law is finally written down in a document called the Mishnah, the “Repetition,” which is part of the Talmud.
In conclusion, recall the ending of Peter’s speech at Pentecost:
With many other words (Peter) warned them; and he pleaded with them, “Save yourselves from this corrupt generation” (Acts 2:40).
The Jews define a generation as 40 years. If the death of Jesus occurred in 30 AD, the destruction of the temple occurred 40 years later: one generation. One can’t help but wonder about the symbolism . . . is Peter is saying the Jews are being given a “grace period” of one generation to transfer their allegiance from the temple to Jesus the Messiah? . . . is Peter prophesying that after 40 years, the temple will destroyed so the “old time religion” of Judaism must be discontinued – and faithful Jews will follow Jesus?
If Jews are the big losers from the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple, Christians are the greatest beneficiaries. Freed from the legalism and temple-focus that the Jerusalem church sought to impose on them, Christians are free to grow along the lines Paul preached: salvation through faith in Jesus, apart from observing the oral law (Acts 13:38-39). And that is exactly what happens: despite sometimes-intense persecution that sends many Christians to their deaths, the church grows dramatically. Then in 312 AD, a Roman general named Constantine is inspired in a dream to put the sign of the cross of Jesus on the uniform of his troops. He wins a great victory at the Milvian Bridge outside Rome, becomes the 1st Christian emperor, and makes Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire.